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Despite these steps, reforms were slow and often undermined by court politics, tribal unrest, or foreign opposition. The selling of economic concessions—like the Tobacco Concession to the British—provoked widespread public backlash and resistance, particularly from the clergy and merchant. Naser al-Din Shah (r. 1848–1896) introduced military reforms, printing presses, telegraphs, and founded Dar ul-Funun. Triggered by corruption, economic crises, and autocratic rule, widespread protests led to the establishment of a Majles (parliament) in 1906 and the adoption of a constitution.
