The four straight roads that ran towards the centre of the city from the outer gates were lined with vaulted arcades containing merchants’ shops and bazaars. Smaller streets ran off these four main arteries, giving access to a series of squares and houses; the limited space between the main wall and the inner wall answered to Mansur’s desire to maintain the heart of the city as a royal preserve. The centre of Baghdad consisted of an immense central enclosure – perhaps 6,500 feet in diameter – with the royal precinct at its heart. The outer margins were reserved for the palaces of the caliph’s children, homes for the royal staff and servants, the caliph’s kitchens, barracks for the horse guard and other state offices.
Qasim’s policies promoted land reform, expanded education, and encouraged industrial development. However, tensions with Arab nationalists, particularly those supporting Nasser’s pan-Arabism, and internal dissent led to his overthrow in 1963. The Ba’ath Party initially seized power briefly in 1963 but struggled to maintain control. During the mid-1960s, power oscillated between military and political leaders, creating an environment of uncertainty.
